MAINTAIN A SOLID STRENGTH-TO-WEIGHT RATIO

This is an excerpt from Advanced Sports Nutrition (2nd Edition) by Dan Benardot.

Protein and Muscle Development

The strength-to-weight ratio is critically important in virtually all athletic endeavors, so athletes are rightly interested in ways to improve or sustain muscle mass. Athletes and their coaches commonly believe the central nutrition strategy for achieving this is to increase protein consumption. However, assuming caloric needs are met, the anabolic maximum for protein is reached at an intake level of approximately 1.5 grams of protein per kilogram of mass. Clearly, if there is a relationship between protein consumption and muscle mass, it must be related to other factors including the type of exercise performed relative to the amount and type of protein consumed, the within-day distribution of protein consumed, and the coingestion of protein with other nutrients. There are, of course, also limitations in how well different populations may hope to enhance musculature, even when optimal nutrition strategies are coupled with appropriate resistance activities. Aging reduces the responses of muscle fibers and the anabolic signaling response to resistance exercise. Although few differences exist between the muscular responses of young women and young men to acute exercise, the muscular responses of older women may be blunted more than in older men.

The timed distribution of protein from food within a day has been assessed, with findings that clearly indicate improved muscle maintenance and enlargement when large peaks and valleys in protein consumption are avoided. Findings suggest that 90 grams of protein (enough to provide 1.5 grams per kilogram for a 60-kilogram, or 132-pound, person) was inadequate to sustain muscle mass when the protein intake (from foods) was postloaded so that most of the protein was consumed during the evening meal. However, when the same amount of protein was evenly redistributed to provide an equal amount (30 grams) of protein at each meal (breakfast, lunch, and dinner), the studied population was able to sustain and, in some cases, even increase muscle mass. The timing of nutrient ingestion also influences the anabolic response of muscle after exercise. Amino acid uptake is greater when free essential amino acids and carbohydrate are ingested before rather than after resistance exercise. However, consumption of whey protein (a whole-food protein) increased amino acid balance from negative to positive regardless of whether it was consumed before or after exercise.

There is a common misunderstanding that extra protein intake alone will support a larger muscle mass, and this theory is the main rationale for the large protein intakes seen in many athletes. In fact, additional total calories are required to support a larger muscle mass, and protein should constitute the same relative proportion of the extra calories consumed. For instance, if a 75-kilogram (165 pound) man wishes to increase his muscle mass by 3 kilograms (6.6 pounds), he would need to consume approximately 1.5 additional grams of protein for each kilogram of muscle mass desired. This amounts to only 4.5 grams of additional protein to support the larger muscle mass. By contrast, 30 grams per kilogram of additional carbohydrate, or 90 grams of additional carbohydrate in total, is required to support the larger muscle mass. Here is the total additional caloric requirement represented by the additional muscle:

• 4.5 grams protein × 4 calories per gram = 18 kilocalories from protein
• 90 grams carbohydrate × 4 calories per gram = 360 kilocalories from carbohydrate
• Total additional calories = 378 calories per day above current requirements to support a 3-kilogram increase in muscle mass

Of course, this athlete would also need to stimulate muscle enlargement by undertaking the appropriate strength-building exercises. Otherwise, the extra calories would manifest themselves as stored fat rather than additional muscle. It is likely that the large amount of protein consumed by so many athletes represents the extra calories they require to maintain or enlarge the muscle mass. Although it is certainly possible to use protein as a primary energy source, it is not the most desirable source because of the nitrogenous wastes produced with protein oxidation. In addition, protein can be an expensive source of calories when provided in supplement form. For instance, eggs (an extremely high-quality source of protein) cost approximately 13 cents per 8 grams of protein, while protein capsules cost approximately $1.20 per 8 grams of protein and may be of questionable quality.

The coingestion of protein and carbohydrate has been assessed to determine if this enhances muscular protein update. One study found that trained men who ingested carbohydrate at the upper end of the recommended level to improve endurance performance (about 8 to 10 grams per kilogram) experienced no enhancement in skeletal muscle energy delivery with the addition of protein. On the other hand, when protein was ingested with carbohydrate during recovery from aerobic exercise, it had the effect of increasing muscle synthesis and improving whole-body net protein balance when compared with an equal caloric load of carbohydrate alone. It has also been demonstrated that an inadequate level of carbohydrate intake compromises skeletal muscle protein utilization and synthesis.

To summarize, building muscle involves more than simply increasing protein and amino acid intakes. It involves the following:

• Addition of resistance activity to provide the physiological motivation (stimulation) to enlarge the muscle mass. It appears that low-load, high-volume resistance activity is superior to high-load, low-volume resistance activity in inducing acute muscle development.60
• The maintenance of a sufficient total energy intake to fully satisfy the energy requirement, including the additional requirement of the added resistance activity. The goal is to allow consumed protein to be used for anabolic purposes rather than to be catabolized as a source of energy to help meet energy needs. In addition, it is possible to build muscle only if strategies are followed to reduce muscle breakdown. Sustaining a good energy balance throughout the day helps achieve this goal, enabling an improved potential for muscle building.
• A protein intake of approximately 1.5 grams of protein per kilogram of body mass. With an adequate total energy intake, this level of protein appears to fully satisfy the anabolic requirements of new muscle synthesis.
• A distribution of protein during the day that avoids large peaks and valleys in protein intake. Ideally, the protein consumed should be evenly distributed over multiple meals during the day.
• The consumption of a high-quality protein source (such as whey protein) either before or after exercise. This strategy appears to enhance muscle protein synthesis.
• The consumption of a carbohydrate and protein mixture immediately after exercise. This strategy also appears to enhance muscle protein synthesis. Athletes should avoid consuming only protein after exercise since this is a key opportunity to replenish depleted glycogen stores, and carbohydrate is needed for this purpose.

FIVE COMPETITIVE FORCES IN SPORT BUSINESS ENVIRONMENTS

This is an excerpt from Applied Sport Management Skills by Robert N. Lussier and David C. Kimball.

Industries vary widely in their business makeup, competitive situation, and growth potential. There is need for different sport management strategies in different areas. To determine whether an industry is worth entering requires answers to such questions as "How large is the market? What is the growth rate? How many competitors are there?" Callaway Golf Company, for example, faces strong competition from Acushnet (Titleist brand), Adams Golf (Tight Lies Fairway Woods), TaylorMade, and Orlimar (TriMetal Fairway Woods).

Michael Porter uses the idea of five competitive forces to analyze the competitive environment.

1. Rivalry among competing firms: Porter calls this "the scrambling and jockeying for position." Businesses compete for customers by price, quality, and speed (responding to new styles and models and getting these products quickly to retailers). Nike, Adidas-Reebok, Puma, and Fila are rivals in the athletic footwear industry. All four of these companies need to anticipate the moves of their competitors. They also need to be aware of newer competitors such as Under Armour.

2. Potential development of substitute products and services: This occurs when companies from other industries try to move into the market. For example, Crocs are slip-on shoes that have become popular in water sports and as a fashion item. Crocs normally come in bright colors and are easily recognizable. Crocs recently formed an alliance with the NFL to sell Crocs shoes in professional team colors.

Clothing manufacturers such as Tommy Hilfiger have attempted to enter the sneaker market using their fashion brand to their advantage. Also, "brown shoe" companies, such as Doc Martens, persuaded many younger buyers to buy hiking-style sneakers instead of the traditional sport sneakers. The brown shoe companies were quite successful in stealing away sales in the mid- to late 1990s.

3. Potential entry of new competitors: How difficult and costly is it for new businesses to enter the industry? Does the company need to defend itself against new competition? Under Armour, founded in 1996, has successfully entered the high-performance apparel industry.

4. Bargaining power of suppliers: How dependent is the business on its suppliers? If the business has only one major supplier and no available alternatives, the supplier has great bargaining power. Conversely, a business can have bargaining power over the supplier. For example, Nike doesn’t manufacture its own sneakers; it uses private contractors in Vietnam to produce the sneakers. Workers are paid very low wages, which indirectly gives Nike a great deal of power over these oftentimes helpless factory workers. In effect, because Nike can easily switch factories, it controls the suppliers.

5. Bargaining power of consumers: Satisfied customers are the key to long-term success.23 How much does the business depend on the consumer? Consumers of footwear have power because they can shift to other manufacturers on a mere whim or because of a new style, better price, higher quality, greater convenience, and a host of other reasons. However, consumers lose power when they are loyal to a business like Nike and want to buy only Nike footwear. Because there are many consumers who want Nike products, Nike is in a strong position as long as it continues to offer appealing products.

Companies use analyses of the industry and their competitors primarily at the corporate level when they are deciding which lines of business they should consider entering (or exiting) and how to allocate resources among their product lines.

PROPER POSTURE IMPORTANT IN GOLF

This is an excerpt from Complete Conditioning for Golf by Pete Draovitch and Ralph Simpson.

Believe it or not, posture has a positive influence on power production. One look at Tiger on the tee should help convince you. He looks balanced and solid, with great spine angles, but, if his daily posture wasn’t good, he wouldn’t be able to put his body into that address position. Running fast without proper posture is impossible. Similarly, swinging a golf club without appropriate postural stability is unwise and less productive. Functional posture makes a world of difference in your swinging action and lets you impart far more force in your ball strike. For a simple demonstration, sit slumped in a chair with your head pushed forward and raise your arm. Then sit tall in your chair and repeat this arm test. Notice how much easier and farther your arm traveled? Sit slumped again and turn your head to the left, as you do during the backswing. Now turn your body to the right. Next, sit up tall, with your chin pulled in and your lower back slightly arched. Repeat these motions and then decide which posture produced a greater and more easily achieved range of motion. The spine is able to flex, extend (bend forward and backward), rotate, and bend to the side, but, when motion in one plane is used, there is less motion to be used in other planes. So if you’re slumped with a head-forward posture, your middle back is flexed and, subsequently, any rotation is decreased.

Body structure and posture are individual characteristics, but an improper golf swing can cause muscle imbalances just as muscle imbalances can cause an improper golf swing. These imbalances might not be obvious until they cause a disruptive physical problem via an escape route. Virtually every postural anomaly causes some sort of adaptation in movement; some are innocuous, but some lead to diminished power as well as potential injury. Here are some common physical limitations:

• Reduced neck rotation can make it difficult to keep your eye on the ball during the swing.
• Insufficient trunk strength interferes with your ability to transfer forces from the lower body to the upper body. In addition, proper spine angle will not be maintained during the swing.
• Tight hamstrings do not allow an effective address position to be achieved.
• Reduced range of hip motion leads to compromised swing patterns and lower-back pain.
• Decreased trunk rotation limits shoulder turn, causes poor sequencing between the hips and trunk, alters the swing plane, and potentially causes back pain.
• Insufficient shoulder strength, especially in the rotator cuff, leads to decreased club-head speed, as well as poor deceleration and poor club control.

Many players think of these problems as products of the sport, so they resort to anti-inflammatory medication and other quick-fix alternatives. These responses might temporarily reduce pain, but they rarely solve the underlying problem. Most postural conditions do not occur overnight. The biggest routine physical challenge faced by amateur golfers entering their 40s and 50s has to do with the posture they’ve developed over the past 20 years. The body slowly adapts to poor posture, and some body parts-such as the neck, shoulder, back, and hip-may be overused to compensate for loss of motion someplace else (see Escape Routes in chapter 2). By performing a few simple exercises regularly, however, you can improve and maintain good posture and thereby improve your swinging power. The testing in chapter 1, Golf Fitness Tests, will help you decide how to focus most of your efforts in regaining better posture.

The ability to maintain your functional trunk position for each shot is an acquired skill. Teaching pros commonly refer to this position as maintaining spine angle. When the spine is stable, it serves as an efficient and rigid lever to transfer energy from the lower body to the upper body and on to the golf club. By increasing the stability of the spine and the muscles that support it, you can improve your game.

Bending the spine places unnecessary stress on the lower-back muscles and joints. It also reduces your ability to transfer power from your lower body to your upper body, which translates into decreased club-head speed. For example, when your upper back is bent forward or hunched over, you place extra stress on your shoulders and neck as your shoulders round forward, thereby causing the rotator cuff muscles (a group of four small muscles that protect the shoulder joint) to work in an abnormal position. This undesirable posture can produce tendinitis, muscle strain, and joint sprain. It places the muscles at a mechanical disadvantage as the joint becomes an energy leak site, absorbing force instead of passing it along into the club and ball. Of course, this position also limits your swing action to a portion of the potential movement range.

Postural muscles (the muscles that maintain spine angle) are found throughout the body and function more for endurance than for strength or power. The main role of these muscles is to hold the skeletal system and joint structures in proper alignment so that the larger and stronger muscles can produce the desired body movements with appropriate forces in tandem with maintaining good balance.

DEVELOPED BACK MUSCLES PREVENT CYCLING INJURIES

This is an excerpt from Cycling Anatomy by Shannon Sovndal.

The importance of a strong and fit back cannot be overemphasized. The back and spine provide the foundation for almost every activity performed, and cycling is no exception. Unfortunately, back problems are a frequent complaint of cyclists. Because of the bent-over position on a bike, back muscles are constantly engaged. This stress can wreak havoc on the body if it isn’t conditioned and trained to withstand the ongoing effort. In addition to withstanding the strain of the cyclists’ position, the back must also provide a solid base that enables a cyclist to generate power during their pedal stroke. Back muscles stabilize the spine and pelvis, allowing the legs to generate maximal power.

TEACHING HEALTH-RELATED FITNESS CONCEPTS

This is an excerpt from Fitness Education for Children: A Team Approach (2nd Edition) by Stephen Virgilio.

Now let’s discuss a plan for teaching health-related fitness concepts and active lifestyles within your physical education classes. To help get you started, I’ll give you models of practical learning activities for each developmental level. Then, in chapter 9 we’ll extend our discussion of teaching health-related fitness concepts with a discussion of ways to collaborate with your partner, the classroom teacher.

Begin with simple learning experiences that are associated with active fun and creativity found in developmental level I. Progress to level II, the level of concrete facts, with relevant examples and activities that apply to a concept. Finally, move your students to independence by giving them the opportunity to solve problems and make decisions, as characterized by developmental level III. Remember to teach health-related physical fitness concepts and active lifestyles throughout the school year, incorporating them into each unit of your curriculum.

STRENGTH TRAINING OLDER ADULTS WITH OBESITY

This is an excerpt from Fitness Professional's Guide to Strength Training Older Adults by Tom Baechle and Wayne Westcott.

Over two-thirds of American adults are overweight or obese (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2004), with many estimates even higher (ACSM 2010). People must be more than 20 percent heavier than the recommended bodyweight for their height to be considered obese, yet bodyweight based on height chart assessments alone does not identify how much extra fat a person is carrying. Another method that does not identify body fat but rather uses bodyweight relative to height (kg/m2) is the body mass index (BMI). The National Institutes of Health (2007) use BMI values between 25 and 29.9 and those greater than 30 for classifying people who are overweight and obese, respectively. When skinfold measurements, or the more precise method of underwater weighing, are used to determine body-fat percentage, values that exceed the normal range by at least 5 percent are considered obese. In older populations, ACSM (2010) has suggested that satisfactory body-fat values for men and women age 50 to 59 are between 10 and 22 percent and 20 and 32 percent, respectively. Average body-fat values reported by the Cooper Institute for men age 60 to 69 and 70 to 79 are 22.6 and 23.1 percent, respectively, and those for women are 27.9 and 28.6 percent, respectively (ACSM 2010). Although girth measurements may also be used with older adults, they may not be as helpful because there are no well-established values for persons over 56 years of age. Regardless of the method used for assessing body composition, the lifestyles of many Americans clearly contribute to their weighing too much.

ANATOMY OF THE SHOULDER

This is an excerpt from Kinetic Anatomy (2nd Edition) by Robert Behnke.

Posterior Muscles of the Shoulder Joint

GROUP EXERCISE FOR NICHE MARKETS

This is an excerpt from Methods of Group Exercise Instruction Book & DVD (2nd Edition) by Carol Kennedy-Armbruster and Mary Yoke.

Let’s look at some other potential niche markets for group exercise. Many fitness professionals are targeting new mothers as exercise participants who could use camaraderie and support during their life transition into motherhood. Until 2000, classes for new moms were very hard to find, but today stroller-based exercise programs are on the rise (Asp 2006). Baby Boot Camp, StrollerFit, and Stroller Strides are only a few of the new group exercise classes that promote engaging in outdoor activity with your baby. These classes are held either indoors or outdoors in neighborhoods and provide a 60- to 75-minute workout combining all the health-related components of fitness. They average in size from 5 to 15 participants and are held in more than 150 locations in many different U.S. states. They are a wonderful way to get new mothers to interact with one another and enjoy a movement experience together. Most participants stay in the program until their kids are around 3 years old. These programs, which are franchises that can be started by any fitness professional, are listed in the resource guide at the end of this chapter (see page 301).

Another niche class that is popping up is a postpartum class in which the children are involved directly with the exercise experience. A recent article (Davies 2006) described a class named Baby Steps in which the mother and baby work out together. Some people call this type of class a mommy and me program (for more information, see the resource list on page 301). The format is usually strength based, with the new moms using their babies as weight rather than holding a dumbbell or a resistance tube. These types of classes are rich experiences in so many ways. The mothers avoid the guilt of leaving their child in order to go exercise. The families don’t have to pay for day care. The baby loves the interaction and attention. The mothers get a wonderful interactive experience with their child and also get a good workout. And this form of exercise is definitely functional training since the mothers become fit using the weight they carry around all day-their baby.

Another very creative example of a niche market program is a class that combines the enjoyment of music with physical movement. This class, which is based on basic conducting techniques, is called conductorcise. The inventor is a retired conductor, David Dworkin, who played clarinet for the American Symphony Orchestra. He suggests that conductorcise is a very good workout, especially for the upper body (Gerard 2006). He also feels that it improves the listening skills of participants and teaches them about the lives and works of great composers. Many musicians are sedentary due to the nature of their activity. Yet they love listening to and learning about music. Thus this mode of exercise can bring a whole new group of participants-musicians-to the exercise experience.

As exercise instructors, we know that there are clients out there we are missing, and so we need to be creative and think outside of the box when coming up with new movement experiences. Keller (2008) outlines several ideas that have brought energy to group exercise. There’s drop-in dodgeball, a game that is held in a basketball court and resembles the dodgeball game played by children. Or there’s stadium stompers, a class whose participants use the stairs of an outdoor football stadium to enhance their fitness. Finally, there is the breakfast club, a senior fitness class that combines all the components of fitness with an opportunity to eat breakfast and socialize at the facility’s café. All of these programs are client centered and involve not only a fitness component but also a meaningful life experience. This is what creating niche markets in group exercise is all about.

TEN TIPS FOR AVOIDING EXCESS WEIGHT GAIN DURING PREGNANCY

This is an excerpt from Motherwell Maternity Fitness Plan by Bonnie Berk.

1. Eat a good breakfast. Skipping meals will contribute to eating in excess later in the day and may make you feel light-headed around midmorning. Also, after you sleep 6 to 8 hours a night without eating, your baby needs the calories early in the day. There is a theory that pregnant women should wake up at night to eat. I don’t believe this is necessary, but try to eat a nutritious breakfast.

2. Plan meals. Think about what you will eat for most meals in the morning so you can budget your nutrients. Take healthful snacks such as carrot sticks, fruit, and whole-grain crackers to work. Without planning, you open yourself to whatever entices you through the day.

3. Choose foods both low in fat and sugar and high in fiber. Canned fruits, for instance, are usually packed in syrup. Read labels for fat and sugar content, especially salad dressings. If you choose to eat something with a high sugar content, also try to eat something nutritious such as a glass of milk. This may help prevent a spike in blood sugar that often stimulates fat storage to occur. Also, it is very common to feel hungry 20 minutes after eating a sugary food because sugar stimulates production of insulin. Fiber tends to make you feel fuller and aids in excess fat removal.

4. Broil, bake, or steam your foods. Even when you go a restaurant, ask about how your food is prepared. Most restaurants will accommodate your dietary needs.

5. Go shopping for food on a full stomach. Make a shopping list to resist impulse buying.

6. Eat before you go to a party or social gathering. The fuller you are when you arrive, the less chance you will be tempted to eat something you do not want.

7. Smuggle fruit into the movies. I can assure you that anything you buy at the movie theater is probably high in fat, sugar, or both. Plan ahead and you will save money as well.

8. Drink at least 8 glasses of water a day. Dehydration often is misinterpreted as hunger. If you are eating all of your nutrients and are still hungry, you might need to drink more water.

9. Avoid people who want you to overeat! People love to encourage pregnant women to eat everything they themselves want but know they should not eat. It is human nature. Do not eat to please anyone. You can still be polite. Just say, thanks, but no thanks!

10. Eat mindfully and savor every bite! Studies show that when a person eats with other people, there is a tendency to eat almost 750 calories more than when eating alone. Researchers attribute this to eating without thinking about what you are eating. Try this eating meditation: Take a bite of food and chew 50 times before swallowing. Notice how the food tastes and then notice how full you feel from just one bite. The more slowly you eat, the less food you will tend to consume and you will enjoy your food more.

LEARN TO REFUEL AND RECOVER QUICKLY

This is an excerpt from Nancy Clark's Sports Nutrition Guidebook (4th Edition) by Nancy Clark.

Recovering From Extensive Exercise

When you’ve exercised hard and feel stiff, sore, and tired, you may wonder, If I were to eat better, would I recover faster? Without a doubt, consuming the appropriate foods and fluids can affect your recovery (as can doing light exercise for 10 to 20 minutes while you are cooling down to assist with removal of lactic acid from the blood and muscles). Many of my clients have questions about their recovery diets:

• Football players want to know what they should eat after morning practice to prepare for the afternoon session.

• People who lift weights wonder if they should eat extra protein after workouts to repair muscles.

• Squash players seek foods that will prepare them for the next day’s match.

• Swimmers search for the proper foods that will get them through a heavy season of training and competing without deterioration and chronic fatigue.

When you deal with the rigors of a tough training schedule, remember that what you eat after a hard workout or competition affects your recovery. For the serious athlete, foods eaten after exercise require the same careful selection as the meal before exercise. You should not separate your recovery diet from your daily diet. By wisely choosing your foods and fluids both right after you finish exercising and throughout the day, you will recover as best as you possibly can for the next workout.

If you are a recreational exerciser who works out three or four times per week, you need not worry about your recovery diet because you have enough time to refuel your muscle glycogen stores before your next workout. But you should be concerned about your recovery diet if you are a competitive athlete who does two or more workouts per day, such as a soccer player at training camp who practices morning and afternoon, a competitive swimmer who competes in multiple events per meet, a triathlete who trains twice per day, an aerobics instructor who teaches several classes daily, or a basketball player who needs to endure an entire season of intense training and competing. To recover and refuel for the next bout, you should pay particular attention to what you eat right after the first session.